Canoeing

Native North ans South American Indians are believed to have been the originators of the canoes we recognise today. They were built from hollow-out tree trunks or were constructed from birchbark. The inuit people of North America and Greenland created their own from of canoe: the sealskin vessels they called kayaks. Aa a competitive sport canoeing was invented by the Scotsman John MacGregor, who in 1866 founded the Canoe Club at Richmond, Surrey.

Rules and Description

Competitive canoeing is divided into two types, depending largely upon the paddle and craft used. “Kayaking” has a paddle with a blade on each end and the kayaker sits in the boat, paddling on alternate sides of the craft. The kayak is a closed decked craft. In “Canadian canoeing” the paddler has just one blade and adopts a half-kneeing position in the canoe, switching the paddle from side to side. The Canadian canoe is an open-decked craft.

In flatwater contests canoeists and kayakers race in lanes over a set distance generally 500m 0r 1,000m were competed over. Flatwater contests are also known as “sprints”, irrespective of the distance. Whitewater or slalom events are held over rivers (natural or man-made) with a series of rapids, currents and sddies. Competitors have to negotiate a series of 18 to 25 gates on a 250-400m course, heading downstream and reversing direction to go upstream. They are timed over the length of the course and can incur penalty points for missing gates or touching gate poles.

Competitor Profile

Competitive canoeists tend to develop a very high level of physical flexibility, strength, and stamina, as the repetitions involved in the aerobic activity of paddling make use of all the muscles in the upper body-abdominals, arms, shoulders, back, and chest – as well as those in the leg.

Speed and Safety

Racing or sprint canoes are long and narrow to facilitate speeds. Slalom canoes are shorter and are fitted with a spraydeck – a waterproof apron worn around the canoeist that stretches over the rim of the canoe cockpit to prevent water from entering the boat.

Protective helmet – A lightweight yet tough and rigid outer shell covers an inner foam lining to provide maximum protection and comfort.

Paddle top – A fully waterproof cagoule, which allows the canoeist complete freedom of movement, is made from a specialist lightweight rubber material.

Flexible spraydeck – The cagoule is combined with a rubber spraydeck that stretches over the canoe cockpit to form a waterlight seal.

Buoyancy vest – To help a canoeist remain afloat in case of a capsize, a foam-filled vest is a useful piece of safety kit, particularly on fast-flowing wartercourses, such as white-water rivers.

Lightweight paddle – Many modern canoe paddles consist of a durable polypropylene blade mounted on an aluminium shaft.

Tough Hull – Canoe hulls, which need to be lightweight yet impact resistant, are constructed from materials such as fibreglass, Kevlar, polythylene plastic, or ultralight carbon fibre.

Boxing

Boxing is a sport of great skill and physical toughness. Two combatants endeavour to punch one another to score points from the judges or referee, while avoiding being hit themselves. Almost all area of the head and body above the waist are designated scoring areas. Contests are won on points or by knockout. There is a major disparity between the amateur and professional ranks in boxing. Leading professional fighters are among the biggest earners in the world.

Fighter profile

Boxers require upper body strength particulary a strong punch – and a high resilience to being hit (a “good chin”). Boxing is a really tough aerobic workout so fighters need to display a fanatical training ethic and great stamina. Speed agility, and quick reflexes are beneficial, particulary for those fighting at lower weight levels.

Need2Know

Modern boxing was first codified in 1867 by a set of 12 rules written by John Graham Chambers and endorsed by the 9th Marquis of Queensberry.

Amateur boxing differs in various ways from the professional arm of the sport.

The Ring

The name Boxing “ring” is an atavism that dates from when contests were fought in a roughly drawn circle on the ground. A modern boxing ring is set on a raised platform. It is square, with posts at each corner to which four parallel rows of ropes are attached with turnbuckle. Each side of a standard ring is 4.88-7.32 (16-25ft) between the ropes, with another 60cm (2ft) outside known as the apron. The platform is 90-120cm (3-4ft) from the ground with posts rising around 1.5m (5ft).

Fighting Gear

Boxers wear shorts, boxing shoes, and padded gloves which come in two sizes – 227g (8oz) and 283 (10oz) depending on the weight of the boxer. Mouth guards are compulsory and groin guards optional in professional boxing. In amateur bouts fighters additionally wear headguards and vests and have larger, softer gloves. This is the only equipment fighters wear and use in the ring, but in training boxers additionally use free weights, punchbags, skipping ropes, speed balls, and other items to hone themselves into fighting shape.

Groin Guard

Protects fighters, groins from injuries resulting from illegal low blows.

Mouth Guards

Plastic gumshields guard the top teeth from being knocked out.

Gloves

Gloves are specially padded to protect only the wearer.

Head Guard

Worn for amateur contests and professional sparring only, they offer protection but limit peripheral vision.
Ring Craft

Basic boxing training centres around physical fitness, speed of movement, and throwing jabs, and footwork. Good punches can only be thrown from a solid base. The techniques of throwing different punches is taught later. Top boxers work with their trainers for weeks at a time leading up to chamionship fights working on their overall conditioning and on a fighting style tailored to their upcoming opponent. They will practice key punches and spar with fighters of a similar build and fighting style to their opponent in an attempt to gain some advantage.

Lawn Bowling

It is believed that bowls developed from a game played by the Egyptians with skittles with round stones. Variants of the game are now played around the world, eg in Italy 9bocce), Denmark (bolle), France (boules: and Polynesia (ulamiaka). The oldest bowls green still in use is in Southampton, England, records showing that bowls have been played there since AD 1299. Henry VII was a keen bowler but thought it should only be played by the nobility, banning Bowyers, Fletchers, Stringers and Arrowhead makers from taking part as they were being distracted from their traders, and imposing a fee of 100 pounds for anyone who wanted to keep a private green. Bowls was introduced into North America in the early 17th century (George Washington is believed to have been a keen player). The game spread throughout the British Empire, with reports of it first being played in Canada (Nova Scotia) in 1730, Australia 9Tasmania) in 1844, and New Zealand in 1860.

Rules and Description

Outdoor or “lawn” bowls is played in 44 countries worldwide on a flat lawn or “green” surrounded by a shollow ditch, enclosed by a low bank and divided into strips known as “rinks” on which each game takes place. Games are contested between individuals, or teams of two, three or four. Bowls (which are flattened on one side to give them a bias) are delivered alternately and rolled towards a small white target ball (the jack), the aim being to place as many of your bowls as possible closer to the jack than your opponents nearest bowl, one point counting for each. Each set of deliveries is called an “end”. Singles is normally played to 21 shots, or to a sets format, with pairs and fours games being the best of 21 ends, and triples the best of 18. After each end, players play in the reverse direction, back up the rink. Bowlers must have one foot on or over a small mat when delivering the bowl. Similar rules apply for indoor bowls, although competitions are usually played on a piece of carpet with a single rink.

Crown green bowls is played predominantly in northern England on a square green, larger than that used for lawn bowls and with a raised “crown” at the centre. Each player (the usual game is singles) bowl closer to the jack than his opponents nearest bowl. Players start each new end from the position of the jack of the previous end. Games are usually played to 21 points.

Player Profile

Lawn bowling is an easy game to learn and is played by just about anyone – men and women, old and young,. The best bowlers have great hand-eye coordination and are very strategic thinkers.

The Bowls

Although bowls were traditionally made of wood or rubber, or a composite, modern bowls are made of lignite. They are designed to travel a curved path, referred to as their bias, produced by the asymmetrical shape of the bowl. The jack is perfectly spherical and usually coloured white.

The Green

Bowls is usually played on a manicured grass or synthetic surface known as bowling green, which is divided into parallel playing strips known as rinks. An indoor variation on carpet is also played. Outdoor greens have a uniform length, but may be of varying widths, depending on the number of rinks Indoor greens are usually smaller, their dimensions being set by organizers.

Equipment and Protection

Formal flourish – Although a players attire is not a significant part of the game, in competitions men will usually wear white clothes and a tie.

Rubber mat – Bowlers must stand with at least one foot on the rubber mat in the centre of their rink

Basketball

A Canadian, James Naismith (1861-1939), is regarded as being the originator of basketball, although a similar game is believed to have been played in Mexico in the 10th century. Naismith invented the game in 1891 at the YMCA college in Springfield, Massachusetts, USA, using peach baskets on a gym wall. The game was originally designed merely to bridge the gap between the baseball and American football seasons, but it soon became popular in its own right.

Rules and Description

Five-a-side team ball game played on a hard – surface court with a bottomless basket at each end. The object is to move the ball by a series of passing and bouncing moves and throw it through the opponents basket. If the shot is not attempted within a prescribed time (24 seconds in the NBA), possession is awarded to the other team. Throwing the ball through the basket from open play scores a “field goal” worth two or three points depending on the distance of the shot. Fouls may be penalized by a series of “free throws” at the basket for one point each.

Playing the Game

Following the tip off which starts the match, each team simply aim to score more points that the other via offense and defense. Offense is generated via passing and dribbling (continually bouncing the ball while moving) and when a player feels they are in a position to score they shoot. Basketball is truly an “end – to – end” sport with numerous baskets scored during the course of the game. Often the winning side will have accumulated more than 100 points.

Out of Bounds

The ball is out of bounds when it touches the floor, or any object on, above, or outside of a boundry, or the backboard supports. When the ball goes out of play the clock is stopped. The ball is put back into play by the team that did not touch it last when it went out of bounds. A player has five seconds to put the ball in play after the referee signals the restart.

The Basket – James Naismiths first basket was an improvised peach basket which retained the ball. The modern basket is a metal rimmed hoop (measuring 50cm (18in) across) fixed to a backboard.

The Hoop – Strong enough to withstand players hanging from it during dunking.

Netting – Gathers the ball into a consistant drop for easy restarting of the game.

Backboard – Made of clear material to afford spectators seated behind the baskets a clear view of the action.
Baskets, Possession, and Rebounds – If a player is successful in shooting a basket, the team is awarded two or three points depending on the distance from the basket. The game restarts with the opposing team in possession on the baseline underneath their own basket. If a shot is unsuccessful, and it bounces off the rim or the backboard, players compete for the rebound. If the attacking team picks up a rebound they can prepare for another shot, if it is the defending team they attempt to move the ball to the other end of the court to score. Having a centre who is particularly adept at picking up rebounds on defense is a huge advantage as it inibits the opposing teams offense. Wilt Chamerlain, who played NBA in the 1960s, is arguably the greatest rebounder of all-time.

The Referee – He stands clear of the players after throwing the ball skyward.

Size Matters – Overall height and the ability to leap vertically from a standing position, are useful attributes at the tip off.

Fair Play – Players must not impede one another when jumping for the ball.

The Ball

The basketball has come a long way since the style first used in the late 19th century. That ball was heavy, with prominet sticthing, and an inconsistant bounce. Todays basketball is made from eight finely stitched pieces of leather filled with air. The mens ball has a radius of 19.3cm and a circumference of 76cm and weighs 600-650g (21-23oz).

Laws of the Court

Basketball was born in 1891 with 13 rules covering all the basics of play. Incredibly, the NBA have only 12 main rules today – but each has many clauses and sub-sections. There are subtle rule differences between the game played by the NBA, International Basketball Federation (FIBA), and National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Games are made up of four 12 minute quarters in the NBA. Teams can have up to 12 palyers but only five of these can be on the court at a time.

Timeout – Timeouts are breaks in the action which can be called by tem coaches and players, usually at key points in the game, to discuss tactics and raise player morale. In the NBA, teams are allowed one 20 second timeout per half, and six regular timeouts over the course of the entire game.

Baseball

The sport developed from the British bat-and-ball game of rounders, which was played by colonists in North America at town meeting days. References to basebll have been found in American newspapers and civic documents from as early as 1791, and there is a tradition (now discredited) that the rules of the game were laid down by Abner Doubleday (1819-93) at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. The first recorded organised game was played between the Knickerbockers and the New York Nine at Hoboken, New Jersey, on 19th June 1846 under rules drawn up by Alexander Cartwright (1820-92). Rules concerning equipment, numbers of “balls” and “strikes” allowed, and dimensions of the field of play developed over the next 50 years. The distance from the oitchers mound to home plate was finally fixed at 18.4m/60ft 6in in 1893, since when there have been only minor changes to the game.

Rules and Description

Team game played between two sides on a field containing a diamond-shaped “infield” which has “bases” at the corners, 27.4/90ft apart, and an “outfield” lying beyond this. Each side consists of nine players who “bat” and “field”, but players may be replaced during the game by substitutes from a total squad of up to 25. Essential pieces of equipment are long solid bats, the hard ball “pitched” from the “mound”, and the glove worn by each fielder: the team”at bat” tries to score runs during each “inning” by having its players hit the ball, circle the bases and return to home plate before being put out by the team “in the field” players are out if their hit is caught, if they are tagged with the ball when “off-base”, if the base is touched by the fielder with the ball before they arrive at it, or if they “strike out”, ie fail to hit the ball after three pitches have been judged “strikes” by the umpire, the team at bat is retired after three players are put out, ending the inning, a game consists of nine innings for each team, plus unlimited extra innings in the event of a tie.

Under National League rules, all nine players who field also bat, under American League rules, the pitcher is not required to bat, and there is a “designated hitter”, who bats but does not field.

Player Profile

Baseball is a game of skill, strategy, and athletic ability. Catching, hitting, and throwing all require excellent hand-eye co-ordination. It also helps to have great reflexes when facing the pitcher. Batters have just a fraction of a second to decide whether or not to swing at a pitch. Fitness is another important part of the game, for sprinting between bases and chasing down fast-moving balls in the field. Physical endurance is also crucial as the pros endure a gruelling 162-game regular season.

Equipment and Protection

Head Protection – Some pitchers can deliver the ball at 160kph (100mph) and more, so a helmet is essential for a batters safety.

Players Identification – Players from all the Major League teams bar the New York Yankees have their names on the back of their jerseys. A number on the front of the jersey also identifies the player.

Team Strip – Each player wears a strip in the distinctive team colours.

Shocking Stockings – Two Major League clubs are named for their stocking colour: the Boston Red Sox and the Chicargo White Sox.

Gripping the dirt – Baseball shoes have metal or plastic cleats on the soles that provide grip when running on dirt.

Bat attack – The baseball bat can measure anywhere between 63.5cm (25in) and 101.6cm (40in) in length and tapers at the handle. Professional players must use a wooden bat. Aluminium bats may be used in amateur baseball .

Padded Protection – The gloves of all fielders are well padded to protect the fingers.

Catchers Mitt – The fingerless mitt of the catcher guards the hand and makes it eadier to catch pitches

Catchers Mask – Modern masks are generally a one-piece design, similar to those worn by Hockey goalies.

Chest protector – Padding cushions the ribcage from pitches and deflected bats.

Knee pads – Special pads are comfortable for the catcher to rest on when in the squat position: they also provide protection for the knee joint.

Extra padding – Padding over the stomach prevents the catcher from being winded.

Shin guards – Also called spike protectors, they are used to prevent injury from base runners sliding into home with “spikes up”

Foot guards – Hard plastic guards cover the catchers shoes to prevent damage to the feet.

Badminton

The chinese are reputed to have played the game more than 2,000 years ago, However, the game it most closely resembles is “battledore and shuttlecock” (the former a taut leather paddle: the latter a small feathered cork), a childrens pastime from Middle Ages. The modern game takes its name from Badminton Hall, in South Gloucestershire, a seat of the Dukes of Beaufort, where games were played in the 1870s. Badminton was also being played in India by British army officers that same decade and first rules were drawn up in 1873.

Rules and Description

Badminton is a game for two or four people, played mainly on indoor courts. The court measures 13.4 x 6.1m/44 x 20ft and is divided in two by a net, which is suspended 1.55m/5ft above the floor. The court size varies for singles and doubles play. The game is played with lightweight rackets and a “shuttlecock”, a cone fashioned from a cork base stuck with 16 goose feather flights (cheaper alternatives are made of plastic). The object of the game is to win more points than the opposition by preventing the shuttlecock from hitting the ground. The server serves into the diagonally opposite service court and a rally continues until the shuttlecock falls outside the court or the opposition cannot retrieve it or a fault is committed. Only the server can score points: if the opposition player wins the point the service advantage moves to him/her.

In the mens and doubles game the first to 15 points wins. If the score reaches 14-14 the player that reaches 14 first decides either to play on to 15 or to “set” the game to 17 points. In the womens game players need to reach 11 points – there is the option to “set” the play at 10-10 to play the best of a further 3 points. Matches are the best of three games, in doubles play both players on a side get the opportunity yo serve before it passes to the opposition.

Clothing and Equipment

Light clothing – lightweight cotton shirts and shorts or skirts keep the players cool.
Shuttle and Racket – Top shuttlecocks weigh around 5g (quarter of oz) and have 16 goose feathers in a cork base and are notoriously fragile: top players often get through ten in course of a match. By contrast, rackets are strong and designed to transfer the maximum energy from the player to the shuttle, giving it greater speed and distance in flight.


 

Australian Football

The know all of Australian Football

Australian Rules Football, or Aussie rules, was invented in the mid- 1800 by Tom Wills, W J Hammersley and J B Thompson. English-educated Wills was a keen cricketer and also football captain at Rugby public school. On his return down under, Wills suggested that cricketers could maintain fitness during the winter months by playing a version of Rugby Football. In 1858 Wills and his associates drew up some rules (which have since been modified), the Melbourne Football Club was formed, and the codes first recorded game was played between Melbourne Grammar school and Scotch College. In 1877 the games first league, the Victorian Football Association, was formed. The game soon spread to other Australian colonies, although Queensland and New South Wales chose rugby union and rugby league as their winter games.

Rules and Description

A field game played between two teams of 18 players, generally on cricket ovals during the winter months. The object of the game is to score “Goals” by kicking an inflated oval ball between the four posts erected at either end of the oval. A goal scored between the two inner posts is worth six points, a goal scored between an inner post and outer post is worth one point. The ball may be kicked, caught, or passed to another player by punching, but may not be thrown. Playersmay run with the ball but must bounce it to the ground every ten metres. A player who catches the ball cleanly may call for a “mark”, which entitles them to an unimpeded kick. The game is regulated by field umpires, goal umpires, and boundry umpires. Each game consists of four quarters of 20 minutes. Each team has four “inter-change” players (substitutes), who can come on and off the pitch at any time during the match.

Equipment and Protection

Head protection – Although lightweight guards called “helmets” are permitted, most players choose not to wear them.

Team colours – Players wear jerseys that display their team colours and an identifying number on the back.

Mouth guard – Most players wear a mouth guard to protect their teeth.

Boots – Players wear soccer style boots with studs or cleated soles.

Oval Ball – An Austrailian football is an inflatable bladder enclosed in four pieces of leather.

Goal posts – These are two posts in the centre. If an attacking player kicks the ball between them, their team is awarded six points.

Behind posts – Two shorter posts flank the goal posts, if the ball passes between a behind post and a goal post, the attacking team scores one point.

Player Profile

Austrailian Rules players are usually tall and athletic. They are fast sprinters and must have enough stamina for sustained running. Players are also physically strong and able to withstand the force of onrushing opponents.

10 Pin Bowling

Bowlers roll a heavy ball along a smooth lane and try to knock down as many of the 10 pins as possible. Points are awarded for the number of pins demolished. Bonuses are given for a "strike" when every pin is knocked over in one attempt.

Player Profile

The only essential is the ability to learn, though endless practice, the techniques of ball control. Age is no barrier: American Dick Weber was 72 when he won the 2002 professional Bowlers Association title.

Equipment and Protection

Come as you are - The only clothing required is that it allows easy movement of the arms and legs.

Sure Footing - The shoe on the leading foot has a rubber sole to give traction: that on the back foot has a leather soleto permit sliding.

Bowling Ball - Balls are traditionally plain black, but many now are finished in any colour and sometimes have patterned designs.

Need2Know

The game emerged in the United States in the 1920s. The first British alleys opened in London in 1960.

One of the most prestigious competitions is the annual Weber Cup. Team Europe compete against Team USA in the equivalent of golfs Ryder Cup.

Pins and Balls

Pins and Balls were once made simply of wood, but the former are now synthetic or plastic - coated wood, while the latter are made of plastic, urethane, epoxy or a combination of these materials. For recreational 10 - Pin bowling, balls come in various weights to suit the strength of the player

The Ball - A full size competition ball weights 7.25kg (16Ib). Its surface is entirely smooth apart from grip holes for a thumb, middle finger, and ring finger.

The Pins - The pins are all uniform height and shoulder be 11.4cm wide at the belly. They each weigh 1.47 - 1.64kg (3Ib 4oz - 3Ib 10oz)

Life in the Fast Lane

The bowling lane is made of 39 planks of polyurethane or wood. On either side of it are semicircular gutters to collect off-target balls. Most public bowling alleys have retractable guard rails that can be lowered into place on the lane-side of the gutters: these are normally brought down to assist players who lack the strength to control the balls. Contestants must release the ball before reaching the foul line, and having bowled, they must not overstep onto the lane.

After every turn, the balls are automatically returned to the approach area along a raised, sloping trackway mounted on the rightand side of the lane.

Lane Law

In competitive 10 - Pin, each player has 10 frames, each of which consist of two attempts to knock down as many pins as possible. One point is scored for every pin that is knocked down. Contestants who demolish all 10 pins at the first attempt are awarded a strike, for which they earn a bonus of whatever they score in the following frame. So the points scored for the two balls after the strikeare counted twice. If the player knocks down all 10 pins in two attempts, he or she is awarded a spare, the bonus for which is double the number of points scored with the first ball of the following frame. If there is still at least one pin standing sfter the second attempt, it is called an open frame